How Dinosaurs Work

Dinosaurs were a group of land animals that lived from about 230 million years ago until about 60 million years ago. This spans the era of theEarth'shistory known as theMesozoicera, which includes, from most ancient to most recent, theTriassic,Jurassicand Cretaceous

periods. Dinosaurs grew in population and diversity during their time on Earth before becoming extinct at the end of the Cretaceous period.

No one knows exactly how many types of dinosaurs inhabited the planet. There are currently about 700 named species, but this probably represents a fraction of the dinosaurs that ever existed.

Dinosaurs ranged in size from immense to tiny, and they came in a range of shapes. Today's dinosaur classifications come from these differences in shape and size. Carnivorous dinosaurs were alltheropods, bipedal animals with three-toed feet.Carnosaurswere a small, agile type of theropod. One of the most widely-known carnosaurs wasVelociraptor, which is considerably smaller than depicted in the "Jurassic Park" films.Sauropods, on the other hand, were enormous, four-legged herbivores likeBrachiosaurus, ApatosaurusandDiplodocus.Dinosaurs with armored bodies and spiny tails wereankylosaurs.Ceratopians-- likeTriceratops-- had frills and horns on their heads.

But not every reptile that lived during the Mesozoic era was a dinosaur. In fact, a lot of extinct animals that people think of as dinosaurs aren't classified as dinosaurs. This is because they don't share one or more of dinosaurs' basic traits:

These traits keep some well-known prehistoric animals from being considered dinosaurs:

So because of their bone structure, habitat or other traits, these animals weren't technically dinosaurs. But they did leave behind same evidence that dinosaurs did -- fossils. Next, we'll look at what fossils can and can't tell us about dinosaurs' physical appearance.

When sediment covers an animal's body shortly after death, its bones canfossilize. Soft tissues, like skin,musclesand other organs, decompose. Minerals from the soil make their way into the bone, turning it to stone. This doesn't happen very often, so there are gaps in thefossil record-- periods of time when conditions weren't right for fossilization.

Researchers remove fossils fromsedimentary岩石使用一系列的工具,picks to paintbrushes, and lots of patience. It's easy to damage fossils during excavation, and the presence of lots of fossils in the same bed can make it hard to decide which bone belonged to which animal.

After excavating a fossil, researchers typically encase it in plaster and ship it to a research facility. There, scientists can makecasts, or reproductions, of the bones and try to recreate the complete skeleton. Scientists can learn a lot from this process:

Technology plays a part, too. Computer simulations help determine how fast a dinosaur could move and how it used its limbs. Researchers can also use computer models to reconstruct the dinosaur digitally, adding virtual layers of muscles, tissue and skin to a 3-D image of the skeleton. Withcomputerized axial tomography (CAT)or CT scans, scientists can also get a detailed view of inaccessible parts of skulls and other bones.

The surrounding rock can offer its own clues. There can be impressions from leaves or feathers, fossil eggs or the remains of nests. Impressions from the dinosaur's skin can give paleontologists an idea of its texture.

But none of this can answer a basic question about dinosaurs' appearance -- what color were they? In everything from movies to play sets, dinosaurs appear in shades of gray, brown and green. But it's just as likely that dinosaurs had the bright coloring of some frogs,snakesand birds.

It can also be challenging to figure out whether a dinosaur had scales or feathers. The absence of quill barbs doesn't prove that an animal was featherless, and feathers themselves decompose long before bone turns to fossil. However, newly-discovered fossils in China have feather impressions in the surrounding rocks. All this evidence suggests that, in terms of appearance, dinosaurs had some avian traits and some reptilian traits.

Next, we'll explore how dinosaurs regulated their body temperature and whether this makes them more like birds or reptiles.

While teeth and bones can offer clues about what dinosaurs ate and how they moved, there are a lot of details we don't know about their physiology. One large question, which encompasses several smaller questions, is whether dinosaurs werewarm-blooded, like birds and mammals, orcold-blooded, like reptiles.

These aren't scientific terms, and they don't have anything to do with the actual temperature of an animal'sblood. Instead, they're descriptions of how an animal uses energy and regulates its body temperature. A warm-blooded animal controls its own body temperature with techniques likesweatingand burning stored nutrients. They'reendotherms-- their heat comes from within. These animals burn energy quickly, or have a relatively highmetabolism. They also maintain a relatively consistent temperature, or arehomeothermic.

Cold-blooded animals, on the other hand, areectothermic, meaning they use their environment to regulate their temperature. Many reptiles, for example, raise their temperature by resting in the sun or on warm surfaces. Cold-blooded animals tend to have a relatively low metabolism. They're alsopoikilothermic-- their internal temperatures vary depending on their environment and activity.

So, are dinosaurs homeothermic endotherms, or are they poikilothermic ectotherms? Scientific opinion has shifted through the years. In the late 1800s, when scientists began theorizing that dinosaursevolvedinto birds, people thought dinosaurs must be warm-blooded like their avian relatives. But beginning in the 1920s, people began to view dinosaurs as reptiles -- and obsolete reptiles at that. The reasons behind this change are murky, and they may have been influenced by public opinion. But the idea that dinosaurs were cold-blooded, slow and not very smart began to overshadow the idea that they were intelligent, swift and agile like birds.

Today, the idea that dinosaurs evolved into birds is back in the scientific forefront -- but there's still ongoing debate about their metabolism. Here's a run-down of some common arguments:

Dinosaurs are endothermic:

Dinosaurs are ectothermic:

因为没有人可以研究喧嚣osaurs in the wild, it's unlikely that scientists will find conclusive proof any time soon.

Next, we'll look into how the bird-versus-mammal question also applies to dinosaurs' reproduction and parenting.

When scientists study dinosaurs, they makeinferences, or draw logical conclusions, based on physical evidence and the way other life forms behave. One inference is that dinosaurs reproduced sexually and laid eggs. This is logical for several reasons:

Matching an egg with its parent is difficult. Researchers have to open lots of eggs to find just one embryo. On top of that, large dinosaurs changed dramatically between hatching from eggs and becoming full grown, so even a perfect embryo doesn't guarantee a match. Also, paleontologists have discovered far fewer distinct eggs than species of dinosaurs, so it's possible, though relatively unlikely, that some dinosaurs gave birth to live young.

But even if an egg's species is unknown, it can still provide insight into how dinosaurs lived. First, like both birds and reptiles, dinosaurs built nests. While some fossil nests are haphazard piles of eggs surrounded by soil and debris, others hold intricately arranged patterns of eggs. Some excavations have revealed sites with multiple layers of eggs and nests. In some species, dinosaur parents tended their nests carefully and returned to a common nesting ground year after year.

The nests themselves give researchers an idea of how the eggs developed and matured. Some nests are shaped much like birds' nests and are higher than the surrounding soil. This suggests that some dinosaurs warmed their eggs just like birds do, by placing their abdomens over the eggs. While this may sound absurd, researchers have found dinosaur skeletons positioned over their eggs. But not every species did this -- others buried and abandoned their nests or, like reptiles, kept eggs warm by covering them with their throat or thorax.

So far, it has been difficult for scientists to determine whether dinosaurs emerged from their eggs ready to fend for themselves, like reptiles, or required extensive parental care, like birds. A six-year study of 80-million-year-old egg fossils at the University of Leicester determined that at least some species were self-sufficient when they hatched [source:Science]. But fully-developed embryos from other species were too small or awkward to survive without help. Researchers have even found adult dinosaur skeletons surrounded by the skeletons of their offspring [source:Trinity-Stevens].

There's also a lot to be learned about dinosaur reproduction. No one is sure whether dinosaurs exhibited mating rituals or competed for mates. However, some species appear to besexually dimorphic-- they have different qualities between the sexes. For example, in a ceratopsian species, males might have a bony neck frill that's shaped differently than females' frills.

Dinosaurs clearly had little trouble reproducing, though -- they dominated the landscape for more than 100 million years. Humans, on the other hand, have existed for far less than one million years. But in spite of their prevalence, dinosaurs became extinct about 60 million years ago. Next, we'll look at the theories behind why this happened.

Dinosaurs became extinct at theK-T boundary-- the dividing line between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. The end of the Cretaceous marks the end of the dinosaurs, while the beginning of the Tertiary marks the rise of mammal life onEarth.

Dinosaurs aren't the only things that died out at the K-T boundary. About 50 percent of the species on Earth became extinct. This included many other large reptiles, like pterosaurs and plesiosarus, as well as lots of plant species and marine animals. Other life forms, such as ferns, flourished by taking advantage of the sudden abundance of natural resources.

Scientists have proposed a number of theories about exactly what happened at the K-T boundary. There's not much physical evidence for some of them. For example, one theory is that dinosaurs were allergic to flower pollen -- flowering plants andbeesevolved together during the late Cretaceous period. However, flowering plants existed for millions of years before the dinosaurs died out. Another theory is that mammals, which began to proliferate at the end of the Cretaceous period, ate dinosaurs' eggs. But considering the number of whole fossil egg specimens, this seems somewhat unlikely.

Then there's theAlvarez hypothesis. In 1980, Luis and Walter Alvarez proposed that comets or asteroids had hit theEarth, causing massive shock waves, debris clouds and other devastation. There's a lot of evidence to support this hypothesis. One is a layer of a mineral callediridium,它存在于地球上的许多地方depths equated with the end of the Cretaceous period. Iridium is more common in space debris than on Earth, so the huge impact of an object from space could have caused this effect.

Perhaps the biggest support for this hypothesis is theChicxulub crater. This is a massive asteroid crater off the coast of the Yucatan peninsula. Based on measurements of sediments and analysis of the surrounding rock, scientists estimate that the asteroid that caused the crater was between 145 and 180 kilometers in diameter. This would have caused exactly the kind of devastation described in the Alvarez hypothesis. A team of three researchers even believes to have discovered the identity of the asteroid itself. Using mathematical models, the group narrowed the field to the Baptistina cluster, a group of asteroids created by a large impact beyond the orbit of Mars [source:Sky & Telescope].

According to the Alvarez theory, the extinction of the dinosaurs wasextrinsic-- it came from outside of the Earth -- andcatastrophic. However, other theories suggest that the mass extinction wasintrinsicandgradual. One idea is that volcanoes in what is now India experienced massive eruptions just before the end of the Cretaceous. These eruptions filled the air with carbon dioxide and sulfur, changing the climate and damaging plant and animal life.

The changing face of the planet may have also played a role. As the continents moved, ocean currents would have changed the weather patterns in different parts of the world. Various forms of life may have been unable to survive these changes.

The best explanation for what happened to the dinosaurs may be a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic theories -- an asteroid impact combined with geological changes and volcanic eruptions. There are also indications that dinosaurs were becoming less diverse before the end of the Cretaceous period. But regardless of the cause, not everything on Earth died at the K-T boundary. Frogs, mollusks and crocodilians survived, and so did birds. Now, we'll take a look at the links between dinosaurs and birds.

If you have a stubborn, obsolete printer in your home or office, you might refer to it as a dinosaur. You might say the same thing about a politician whose views you consider out-of-date. Or, if you think the latest innovation is doomed to failure, you might say it's going to go the way of the dinosaur. These figures of speech come from the idea that dinosaurs are a species that died out because they couldn't keep up. They were too big, too slow, too heavy and too old to make it to modern times.

But many scientists don't see it that way at all. Instead of becoming obsolete, dinosaursevolvedinto birds, which are extremely sophisticated. Not only did they become a type of animal that still exists today, they also developed a skill that very few life forms onEarthhave. Only pterosaurs, insects, bats and birds can fly.

Physical evidence supports the theory that dinosaurs evolved into birds. The first thing to keep in mind is that the theory doesn't apply to every species of dinosaur, or even every subgroup of dinosaur. The dinosaurs that evolved into birds aretheropods-- the three-toed dinosaurs that includeTyrannosaurus rexandVelociraptor.Ironically, these are members of the saurischian, or lizard-hipped, subgroup, rather than the ornithischian, or bird-hipped group.

Several theropod species have physical features in common with birds. These shared traits are calledsynapomorphies, and they include:

Today's birds also have fused finger bones at the tips of their wings, which corresponds to the claws at the end of dinosaurs' front limbs. We've discussed other similarities already, including feathers and the act of incubating eggs by sitting on a nest. Scientists have even discovered a fossilized skeleton in which the dinosaur's head is tucked under its wing, the same way a duck sleeps [source:Roach].

Of course, this isn't the only explanation for what happened to dinosaurs or for where birds came from. Opponents of the theory of evolution argue that there's no physical evidence for the transition from dinosaur to bird. Dissenting scientists contend that dinosaurs have far more in common with reptiles and are represented instead in today's reptile species, including crocodiles.

Supporters of the dinosaur-to-bird theory reply thatArchaeopteryx lithographica, generally regarded as the oldest known bird, partially fills the role of the missing link. AlthoughArchaeopteryx是一只鸟,它也显得特性,像什么teeth and a bony tail. Additionally, recent discoveries of feathered fossils in China may yield more evidence that birds and dinosaurs are related.

In terms of this theory, more than 10,000 dinosaur species live today. But just as fascinating as the idea that some dinosaurs survived past the K-T boundary is the thought that scientists could create new dinosaurs. Let's take a look at how this idea, and the idea that people might interact with dinosaurs, has appeared in the media.

Stories about dinosaurs have existed for as long as people have been aware of the existence of trackways and fossils. Some researchers suggest that legends of behemoths and dragons come from the discovery of dinosaur bones and footprints [source:Sanz]. There are also cave paintings that appear to depict bipedal dinosaurs. One team of anthropologists believes that the !Kung, or San, of North Africa created these images based on both a fossilized skeleton and a set of footprints [source:Ellenberger].

The first dinosaur movies made their appearance shortly after the development of motion pictures. The earliest dinosaur films came out between 1910 and 1930. One was "The Lost World," which was based on a book by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Dinosaur cartoons made their debut around the same period. In 1940, Disney released its movie "Fantasia," which used Igor Stravinsky's "The Rite of Spring" as the score for the life and extinction of the dinosaurs.

With the exception of "Fantasia," most of these films depicted humans' encounters with dinosaurs. Characters usedtime travelto reach the age of the dinosaurs, or they discovered previously unknown locations in which dinosaurs survived. In today's dinosaur stories, such as "Jurassic Park,"DNAplays the primary role in the face-to-face introduction between people and dinosaurs.

There are several problems with this idea:

However compelling the argument for preserved DNA might seem, cloning dinosaurs is highly unlikely.

Dinosaurs are land-based animals which lived from 230 million to 60 million years ago. Scientists study dinosaurs by looking at bone and egg fossils, footprint track ways, and by using our knowledge of dinosaurs' living relatives. Some dinosaurs were as small as modern birds, while others weighed many tons. Scientists have been able to put together entire dinosaur skeletons, but they still don't know what color their skin was or whether or not they had feathers.

Another question surrounding dinosaurs is whether or not they were warm-blooded, like birds, or cold-blooded, like reptiles. The discovery of some new fossils and more research could help shed light on this question. Like birds and reptiles, dinosaurs laid eggs. Matching a fossilized egg to a species is a difficult task, but scientists can learn about a dinosaur's behavior by examining an intact nest.

A popular theory for the extinction of dinosaurs, the Alvarez theory, states that an asteroid may have hit the Earth, causing the mass extinctions. Modern-day birds are the closest living relatives to dinosaurs, and scientists have recently discovered some "missing link" fossils that bolster this theory. Far from dying out, it seems the dinosaurs have simply evolved.

Top 5 Dinosaur Facts